Proceedings of the ICE - Construction Materials
Construction Materials seeks to publish original research and practice papers of the highest quality on procurement, specification, application, development, performance and evaluation of materials used in construction and civil engineering. Papers are particularly sought on metals, timbers, glass, ceramics, bricks, terracotta, stone, rubber, finishes, plastics, sealants, adhesives, bitumen and fabrics. Papers on innovative and recycled materials and novel applications of other materials such as concrete and cement are also encouraged. All aspects of a material’s life are addressed including embodied energy, environmental impact, service life, refurbishment, recycling and reuse.
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- Awards: Each year, the paper rated best by the Editorial Panel is given the ICE's prestigious Howard Medal.
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Editorial
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Water absorption and frost heaving of recycled aggregates
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Water absorption and frost heaving of aggregates have a strong influence on the performance of a highway pavement. This is because several mechanical properties of aggregates change in direct response to water ingress and ground freezing. Recycled aggregates of different types are increasingly being used in pavements; however, their frost heaving and water absorption potential has not been fully investigated and documented. In the present study the opportunity was taken to study the water absorption and freeze–thaw properties of three different aggregates: (i) 100% recycled concrete aggregate, (ii) 100% natural aggregate from limestone rock, and (iii) 50% recycled concrete aggregate + 50% reclaimed asphalt pavement. For different particle size ranges, extensive tests were carried out for each of the above materials ((i)–(iii)) using the pyknometer and wire basket methods as well as simulation in a self-refrigerated unit. The following three kinds of density were measured: (a) over-dry, (b) saturated and surface dry, and (c) apparent particle density. The 100% natural aggregate had the lowest water absorption and highest densities ((a)–(c)) whereas the 100% recycled concrete aggregate had the highest water absorption. In contrast to the above findings, the frost heave potential was found to be much less sensitive to the aggregate type and particle size. Water absorption of recycled concrete aggregate decreased with increasing mean particle size. The measured relationships between density, grading and water absorption led to increased understanding of the behaviour of materials containing different fractions of recycled concrete aggregate and reclaimed asphalt pavement.
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Properties of fly-ash lightweight aggregate concretes
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Lightweight concrete with sintered fly-ash aggregates was compared with that of normal weight concrete with granite aggregates for various water/binder ratios starting from 0·30 to 0·50. They both had the same mixture proportion by volume and the only difference between them was the coarse aggregate used. Test results indicated that when granite aggregates have been replaced completely with lightweight aggregates, a reduction of 20% in the density of concretes was observed. Lightweight concrete exhibited higher workabilities than the corresponding normal weight concrete mixtures. With the exception of the elastic modulus all the other properties such as compressive strength, splitting tensile strength and chloride permeability of the lightweight concrete mixtures were comparable with normal weight concrete mixtures at water/binder ratios of 0·45 and 0·50. The ratios of splitting tensile strength to compressive strength of lightweight concrete were found to be similar to that of normal weight concrete.
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Fatigue lives of self-compacting concrete and self-compacting fibre-reinforced concrete beams
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This paper presents results of an investigation conducted to estimate the mean and design fatigue lives of self-compacting concrete and self-compacting fibre-reinforced concrete beams containing 0·5% volume fraction of steel fibres. Approximately 19 flexural fatigue tests and 90 complementary static flexural strength tests were conducted on self-compacting concrete and self-compacting fibre-reinforced concrete beam specimens of 100 × 100 × 500 mm size. The distribution of fatigue life of self-compacting concrete and self-compacting fibre-reinforced concrete at different stress levels has been examined and Weibull distribution parameters have been obtained by different methods of analysis, which are subsequently used to estimate the mean and design fatigue lives of self-compacting concrete and self-compacting fibre-reinforced concrete. The performance of self-compacting concrete and self-compacting fibre-reinforced concrete have been found to be better, in terms of reduced variability in the distribution of fatigue lives and higher mean and design fatigue lives, compared to normally vibrated concrete and normally vibrated fibre reinforced concrete.
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Compressive strength of concrete after early loading
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In modern construction projects it is necessary to work with concrete at a time before its strength can be fully developed. Applying large construction loads to a structure can lead to a reduction in strength if the serviceability limit has been exceeded. However, the effects of smaller compressive loading on concrete cubes, below the serviceability limit state, have been found to have a positive impact on the 28 day ultimate strength. The results from this study indicate the 28 day strength of wet cured concrete cubes increased on average by 6% when specimens were loaded up to 90% of their ultimate strength at 1, 3 or 7 days after casting. Concrete specimens under the same conditions loaded past the point of maximum stress at an early age displayed a reduction in strength from 5% or greater, depending upon the extent of the loading. This phenomenon of increased strength after loading and subsequent curing has been reported in the literature for many years, but the use of modern compressive test apparatus has enabled the present authors to show that the final strength has a high level of correlation with the displacement during the initial early loading. The experiments carried out in the present study were to simulate high construction loading at early ages to better understand the effects of early loading and the changes in ultimate strength at later age.
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Undercut anchorage in dimension stone cladding
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This paper analyses undercut anchorage technology, in particular its behaviour and performance as a fixing system for dimension stone cladding of rainscreen façades. Based on a number of mechanical tests using various types of Portuguese stone – three igneous, two sedimentary and one metamorphic – a study was carried out to investigate the relationship between the flexural strength and breaking load of specific and very common stone types. Several physical and mechanical characterisation tests and 130 pull-out tests with 6 and 8 mm cone bolt threads were performed to determine the pull-out load failure on six different stone types: three granite, two limestone and one marble. Finite-element stress analyses were carried out, and the test results were the basis for calibrating a simple formula that can be used to estimate the stone's breaking load at the undercut anchorage. Stress concentration factors are proposed to take into account the undercut drill hole geometry and the specific properties of each type of stone. Stone specimens from the same batches were subject to pull-out force tests using dowel anchorages, whose values were then compared with the breaking load of undercut anchorages. Results are discussed and conclusions are drawn based on tensile stress values by comparing the test results, the finite-element method and the proposed semi-empirical formulations for the same breaking load.
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Compression resistance of confined timber stud walls
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Hemp-lime is an insulating low carbon dioxide material that is produced from sustainable natural resources. The use of hemp-lime within the construction industry is a relatively recent development. Currently within the UK hemp-lime is used to form solid wall insulation in conjunction with structural timber studwork. Current design practice generally assumes that the hemp-lime does not contribute towards the structural capacity of the wall. This paper details research that has been undertaken to establish the compressive load enhancement provided to timber studs by encasement in hemp-lime. Laboratory testing was carried out on timber studs with and without hemp-lime and the results compared. It was found that the hemp-lime significantly increases the compressive capacity of the studs and prevents buckling from occurring.
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Book review: PPR535 – Assessment of Asphalt Durability Tests: Part 1, Widening the Applicability of the SATS Test- + Show Description- Hide Description
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Book review: PPR536 – Assessment of Asphalt Durability Tests: Part 2, Comparison of Wheel Tracking Tests using European Standards
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Book review: PPR537 – Assessment of Asphalt Durability Tests: Part 3, Review of SATS Test to Evaluate Existing Base Layers
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An appraisal of the compressive force path concept
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The results of an experimental appraisal of the compressive force path concept are presented in the form of a comparative study of the behaviour of beams reinforced in compliance with this concept and that of beams designed for shear in compliance with codal provisions based on the 45° truss analogy. The experimental results support the assertion of the compressive force path concept that the causes of failure of shear critical beams are associated with stress conditions in the region of the path along which the compressive chord force is transmitted to the supports and not with the traditional concept of shear capacity of a critical section. The experiments confirmed that although detailing of transverse reinforcement in the shear span of a beam following the recommendations of the 45° truss analogy will prevent a premature shear failure, such detailing in itself may not be sufficient to provide appreciable ductility to the member. Significant enhancement of ductility was observed in those beams in which the transverse reinforcement had been extended from the shear span into the flexure span in compliance with the compressive force path concept.
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Book review: PPR482 – A Pilot-scale Trial of Reservoir Pavements for Drainage Attenuation
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Book review: Fitz's Atlas of Coating Defects 2
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Book review: Sustainable Materials – with Both Eyes Open
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Most viewed this month in this journal:
- Self-healing cementitious materials: a review of recent work
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Historically construction materials have been designed to meet a fixed specification and material degradation has been viewed as inevitable and mitigated for through expensive maintenance regimes. Material scientists have recently begun developing materials which have the ability to adapt and respond to their environment, drawing on their knowledge and familiarity of biological systems. This fundamental change in material design philosophy has resulted in the creation of a whole host of ‘smart’ materials, including self-healing materials. The development of self-healing materials is reviewed in this paper, together with definitions of common terminology. A brief summary of the construction industry is given, together with a synopsis of the main issues of durability relating specifically to cementitious materials. Specific focus is then given to both autogenic (natural) and autonomic (manufactured) healing processes within cementitious materials. The paper concludes with a summary of self-healing materials, an overview of their potential use within the construction sector, and recommendations to this sector for future uptake of these new and innovative materials.
- Building limes in the United Kingdom
- This paper traces the development of lime as a building material, from ancient times to classical Roman technology, its loss in the Dark Ages, its restoration in the technical revolution until superseded by cement and its re-emergence in recent times. It follows the developing product with evolving production technology and its classification with increased understanding of materials science. The modern understanding of microstructure is used to explain the benefits of porosity and plasticity, and examples are given of mixes for exposure conditions. The environmental benefits are compared with those of alternative binders.
- The engineering properties of Victorian structural wrought iron
- This paper presents results, which are of general interest and relevance to the structural engineering community, from a comprehensive investigation of the mechanical properties of the wrought iron from a bridge in mid-Wales, together with data from tests over the last 125 years on wrought iron from various locations. The paper discusses the variability of wrought iron in terms of material from a single source and from different sources throughout the UK. It is shown that wrought iron is a very variable material and that assessment of wrought-iron structures needs to take account of that variability and the condition of the wrought iron. The results reported were obtained as part of a research project into the strengthening of wrought-iron structures using carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer composites.
- Development and testing of a prototype straw bale house
- This paper describes the research, development, construction and initial testing of an innovative low-carbon prototype house built using novel prefabricated straw bale panels. The use of straw as insulation provides an opportunity for value-added use of a widely available low-carbon co-product of farming. The research reported in the paper seeks to enhance the understanding and develop the modern mainstream acceptance and use of straw as a construction material in housing and other applications. The paper initially summarises development and construction of the panels and the house. Tests conducted on the panels and house reported in the paper include on-going durability assessment, fire resistance testing, acoustic transmittance testing, air permeability tests and thermal surveys.
- UK contractors’ views on self-compacting concrete in construction
- Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is claimed to offer faster construction, safer sites and more consistent concrete quality,
but little corroborative research data exist on performance advantages, particularly in comparison with traditional
construction. Industry opinions also appear to be divided. For these reasons, an extensive interview programme was
undertaken with UK contractors – from large national concrete frame contractors to small, locally based housebuilders
– to assess whether benefits were being achieved and to try to understand the reasons why SCC is, or is not, being
used. The 48 participants reported that decisions on the suitability of SCC were inherently complex and, if selected,
there were challenges in understanding ‘how’ construction should be planned and managed to accommodate the use
of SCC and to fully utilise its advantages. The findings identify the need for a step change in the industry’s perception of SCC, such that it should be considered as a construction method, not simply as a material.
- Durability of light steel framing in residential applications
- This paper presents a summary and analysis of research findings on the durability of galvanised cold-formed steel sections used in housing in order to deduce their design life. These cold-formed sections are produced from pre-galvanised strip steel. It reviews reports and publications from research projects carried out by Corus and the Steel Construction Institute on zinc-coated, cold-formed steel products. New data have also been gathered from measurements on houses and similar buildings that have used galvanised steel components. The data also extend to over-cladding applications in building renovation. The performance of galvanised (zinc-coated) steel components within warm-frame applications is very good. The research leading to this paper shows that the predicted design life of the standard G275 coating, based on the measured loss of zinc from the strip steel, is over 200 years, provided that the building envelope is well insulated and properly maintained. The evidence for this conclusion is based on measurement of zinc loss on light steel frames in various applications and locations. A formula for the loss of zinc over time in areas subject to low condensation risk is presented.
